CURRENT LEGAL STANDARDS FOR ACCESS TO PAPERS, RECORDS, AND COMMUNICATIONS:

What Information Can the Government Get About You, and How Can They Get It?

The Center for Democracy and Technology

Version 4.1, August 2006

Poster Versions:

11x17

TABLE OF CONTENTS

  Probable Cause Lower Standard Notice Foreign Intel.
RECORDS IN YOUR POSSESSION
Papers G   Y   G   Y  
Data G   Y   G   Y  
COMMUNICATIONS: REAL-TIME
Telephone / Voice G   G   Y   Y  
Email / Internet G   G   Y   Y  
Telephone / Voice (Non-content) Y   Y R   Y  
Email / Internet (Non-content) Y   Y R   Y  
INFORMATION STORED BY A THIRD PARTY
Electronic Communication: e.g., voicemail & email
-- Unopened, <= 180 days old G   G   Y   Y  
-- Opened, <= 180 days Y   Y   R   Y  
-- > 180 days old R   Y   R   Y  
Subscriber Information R   Y   R   R  
Email/Internet Logs R   Y   R   R  
Other Records
Cable Y   Y   Y   R  
Bank R   Y   Y   R  
Credit History R   Y   Y   R  
Education R   Y   R   R  
Other Records R   R   R   R  
International R   R   R   R  
RELEVANT LAW

Legend
R:
Little or No Privacy Protection
 		 Y:
Modest or Intermediate Privacy Protection
 		 G:
Strong Privacy Protection
 
 

RECORDS IN YOUR POSSESSION

Papers

Description: Papers in your home or office (record subject = record holder)
-- Criminal
Probable Cause Standard? Yes.  4th Amendment.  Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure, Rule 41.
Reduced Standard? Yes. Grand jury subpoena.
Notice Required at Time of Search? Can be DELAYED.  18 U.S.C. § 3103a(b)
Exception/Note: Employees rights are limited.
Exception/Note: USA PATRIOT Act § 213 allows courts to authorize "sneak and peek" searches without notice, codified at 18 U.S.C. § 3103a.
Exception/Note: Some exceptions to requiring a warrant:
consent (Schneckloth v. Bustamonte, 412 U.S. 218 (1973)),
plain view (Horton v. California, 496 U.S. 128 (1990)),
search incident to a lawful arrest (United States v. Robinson, 414 U.S. 218 (1973)),
inventory searches (Florida v. Wells, 495 U.S. 1 (1990)),
border searches (United States v. Montoya De Hernandez, 473 U.S. 531 (1985)).
Exception/Note: California v. Greenwood 486 U.S. 35 (1988) (garbage placed on the curb was not afforded 4th Amendment protections because you voluntarily consented to put it in a public place).
Exception/Note: United States v. Place 462 U.S. 696 (1983) (although the contents of luggage is protected by the 4th Amendment, a canine sniff of luggage without a warrant is not a violation of the 4th Amendment).
Exception/Note: Florida v. Riley 488 U.S. 445 (1989) (there is no 4th Amendment protection for items in a house that can be seen from the outside, such as through a window or a hole in the roof because it is in plain view).
Exception/Note: Kyllo v. United States 533 U.S. 27 (2001) (use of technology such as a thermal imager to gain information regarding the interior of a home constitutes a search under the 4th Amendment when the technology is not in general public use (and therefore unreasonable)).
-- Intelligence
Probable Cause Standard? Yes.  Probable cause that target is a foreign power or an agent of a foreign power.  50 U.S.C. § 1824
Reduced Standard? No.
Notice Required at Time of Search? No.  Notice never given unless used against target in court or if no longer pertinent to a national security interest, both of which require approval of the Attorney General.  50 U.S.C. § 1825(b), (d)
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Data

Description: Electronic data on your hard drive or disks at home or office (record subject = record holder)
-- Criminal
Probable Cause Standard? Yes.  4th Amendment.  Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure, Rule 41.
Reduced Standard? Yes. Grand jury subpoena.
Notice Required at Time of Search? No.  Can be DELAYED.  18 U.S.C. § 3103a(b)
Exception/Note: Employees rights are limited.
Exception/Note: USA PATRIOT Act § 213 allows courts to authorize "sneak and peek" searches without notice.
Exception/Note: Some exceptions to requiring a warrant:
consent (Schneckloth v. Bustamonte, 412 U.S. 218 (1973)),
plain view (Horton v. California, 496 U.S. 128 (1990)),
search incident to a lawful arrest (United States v. Robinson, 414 U.S. 218 (1973)),
inventory searches (Florida v. Wells, 495 U.S. 1 (1990)),
border searches (United States v. Montoya De Hernandez, 473 U.S. 531 (1985)).
-- Intelligence
Probable Cause Standard? Yes.  Probable cause that target is a foreign power or an agent of a foreign power.  50 U.S.C. § 1824
Reduced Standard? No.
Notice Required at Time of Search? No.  Notice never given unless used against target in court or if no longer pertinent to a national security interest, both of which require approval of the Attorney General.  50 U.S.C. § 1825(b), (d)
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COMMUNICATIONS: REAL-TIME

Telephone / Voice

Description: Real-time interception of face-to-face conversations, phone calls, faxes
-- Criminal
Probable Cause Standard? Yes. 18 U.S.C. § 2518
Reduced Standard? No.
Notice Required at Time of Search? No. Notice is always DELAYED.  18 U.S.C. § 2518
Exception/Note: Emergency interception authority prior to receiving a court order.  18 U.S.C. § 2518
Exception/Note: Various exceptions:
consent, § 2511(2)(c)-(d),
provider, § 2511(2)(a)(i),
computer trespasser, § 2511(2)(i),
extension telephone, §  2510(5)(a),
inadvertently obtained, § 2511(3)(b)(iv), and
accessible to the public, § 2511(2)(g)(i).
Exception/Note: Lopez v. United States 373 U.S. 427 (1963) (allows hidden recorders carried on an undercover operative because there is no physical invasion).
-- Intelligence
Probable Cause Standard? Yes. Probable cause that target is a foreign power or agent of a foreign power.  50 U.S.C. § 1805
Reduced Standard? N/A
Notice Required at Time of Search? No.  Notice never given unless used against target in court, which requires approval of the Attorney General.  50 U.S.C. § 1806(c)

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Email / Internet

Description: Real-time interception of electronic communications in transit (grabbing bits off the wire)
-- Criminal
Probable Cause Standard? Yes. 18 U.S.C. § 2518
Reduced Standard? No.
Notice Required at Time of Search? No. Notice is always DELAYED.  18 U.S.C. § 2518
Exception/Note: Emergency interception authority prior to receiving a court order.  18 U.S.C. § 2518
Exception/Note: Various exceptions:
consent, § 2511(2)(c)-(d),
provider, § 2511(2)(a)(i),
computer trespasser, § 2511(2)(i),
extension telephone, §  2510(5)(a),
inadvertently obtained, § 2511(3)(b)(iv), and
accessible to the public, § 2511(2)(g)(i).
Exception/Note: There is no longer any exception for email temporarliy stored in transit. See United States v. Councilman, 418 F.3d 67 (1st Cir. 2005) (en banc) (overruling the 1st circuit panel, which had held that an exception exists).
-- Intelligence
Probable Cause Standard? Yes. Probable cause that target is a foreign power or agent of a foreign power.  50 U.S.C. § 1805
Reduced Standard? N/A
Notice Required at Time of Search? No.  Notice never given unless used against target in court, which requires approval of the Attorney General.  50 U.S.C. § 1806(c)

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Telephone / Voice (non-content)

Description: Real-time interception of dialed number by pen register / trap & trace device
-- Criminal
Probable Cause Standard? No.
Reduced Standard? Yes. Certification by the applicant that the information likely to be obtained is relevant to an ongoing criminal investigation. 18 U.S.C. §§ 3122-3123
Notice Required at Time of Search? No. PROHIBITED unless ordered to disclose by a court.  18 U.S.C. § 3123(d)(2)
Exception/Note: Cell phone locating information (pen register) likely requires a probable cause standards, but the issue is still working its way through various federal courts. More info. However, the Department of Justice maintains that it requires a court order merely with specific and articulable facts.  18 U.S.C. § 2703(d).
-- Intelligence
Probable Cause Standard? No.
Reduced Standard? Yes. Certification that information likely to be obtained is 1) foreign intelligence information or 2) relevant to an ongoing investigation to protect against international terrorism or clandestine intelligence activities.  50 U.S.C. § 1842
Notice Required at Time of Search? No.  Notice only if evidence used in criminal prosecution. 50 U.S.C. §  1845

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Email / Internet (non-content)

Description: Real-time interception of routing information of electronic communications in transit by pen register / trap & trace device
-- Criminal
Probable Cause Standard? No.
Reduced Standard? Yes. Certification by the applicant that the information likely to be obtained is relevant to an ongoing criminal investigation. 18 U.S.C. §§ 3122-3123
Notice Required at Time of Search? No. PROHIBITED unless ordered to disclose by a court.  18 U.S.C. § 3123(d)(2)
Exception/Note: Pen/Trap device or process does not read the content of email.  18 U.S.C. § 3127(4)
The Department of Justice interpreted in its July 2002 guidelines for "Searching and Seizing Computers and Obtaining Electronic Evidence in Criminal Investigations" as excluding the Subject line of email headers.
Exception/Note: USA PATRIOT Act § 216 confirmed application of Pen/Trap statute to a wide range of electronic communications.
-- Intelligence
Probable Cause Standard? No.
Reduced Standard? Yes. Certification that information likely to be obtained is 1) foreign intelligence information or 2) relevant to an ongoing investigation to protect against international terrorism or clandestine intelligence activities.  50 U.S.C. § 1842
Notice Required at Time of Search? No.  Notice only if evidence used in criminal prosecution. 50 U.S.C. §  1845
Exception/Note: USA PATRIOT Act § 214 expanded Pen/Trap for intelligence activities.

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INFORMATION STORED BY A THIRD PARTY

Electronic Communication: e.g., voicemail & email (unopened, <= 180 days old)

Description: Unopened electronic communications in storage for 180 days or less with provider of service to the public.
-- Criminal
Probable Cause Standard? Yes.  18 U.S.C. § 2703(a)
Reduced Standard? No.
Notice Required at Time of Search? No.  18 U.S.C. § 2703(a)
Exception/Note: Employee rights in email on a company system may be limited.
Exception/Note: Service provider can voluntarily disclose in perceived emergencies.  18 U.S.C. § 2702
-- Intelligence
Standard? FISA does not expressly address communications in storage. If stored email is a business record, it is available with a court order upon a showing of reason to believe that it is relevant to a FI/FCI investigation. Notice prohibited. 50 U.S.C. § 1861.
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Electronic Communication: e.g., voicemail & email (opened, <= 180 days old)

Description: Opened electronic communications, less than 180 days old
-- Criminal
Probable Cause Standard? Standard is in dispute - compare 18 U.S.C. § 2703 and Theofel v. Farey-Jones, 341 F.3d 978 (9th Cir. 2003). Typical emergency exceptions etc. apply.
Reduced Standard? Yes. 1) Via administrative or Federal or State grand jury or trial subpoena or 2) by offering "specific and articulable facts" that information is "relevant and material to an ongoing criminal investigation" 18 U.S.C. § 2703(b)(1), 2703(d)
Notice Required at Time of Search? No if warrant. 
Yes if non-warrant, but can be DELAYED or PROHIBITED.  18 U.S.C. §§ 2703(b), 2705
-- Intelligence
Standard? FISA does not expressly address communications in storage. If stored email is a business record, it is available with a court order upon a showing of reason to believe that it is relevant to a FI/FCI investigation. Notice prohibited. 50 U.S.C. § 1861.
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Electronic Communication: e.g., voicemail & email (> 180 days old)

Description: Electronic communications in storage for more than 180 days with provider of service to the public.
-- Criminal
Probable Cause Standard? No.  Warrant can be used, but voluntary disclosure in emergency, subpoena, or court order suffice.  18 U.S.C. §§ 2702, 2703(a)-(c)
Reduced Standard? Yes. 1) Via administrative or Federal or State grand jury or trial subpoena or 2) by offering "specific and articulable facts" that information is "relevant and material to an ongoing criminal investigation" 18 U.S.C. § 2703(a), 2703(b)(1), 2703(d)
Notice Required at Time of Search? No if warrant. 
Yes if non-warrant, but can be DELAYED or PROHIBITED.  18 U.S.C. §§ 2703(b), 2705
-- Intelligence
Standard? FISA does not expressly address communications in storage. If stored email is a business record, it is available with a court order upon a showing of reason to believe that it is relevant to a FI/FCI investigation. Notice prohibited. 50 U.S.C. § 1861.
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Subscriber Information

Description: Records identifying subscribers and telephone toll records
-- Criminal
Probable Cause Standard? No.  Warrant can be used, but voluntary disclosure in emergency, subpoena, or court order suffice.  18 U.S.C. §§ 2702, 2703(a)-(c)
Reduced Standard? Yes, administrative or other subpoena seeking the described non-content information, generally a relevance or lower standard.  18 U.S.C. § 2703(c)(2)
Notice Required at Time of Search? No. 18 U.S.C. § 2703(c)(3)
Exception/Note: Non-content information required to be disclosed to government with mere subpoena was expanded by § 210 of the USA PATRIOT Act to include: name, address, local & long distance telephone connection records or records of session time and duration, length of service and types of services utilized, telephone or instrument number or other subscriber number or identity, and means & source of payment for service (including any credit card or bank account number).  18 U.S.C. § 2703(c)
Exception/Note: Any other record not described above requires 1) a warrant and no notice or 2) a court order based on specific and articulable facts and notice.  18 U.S.C. § 2703(c), (d)
-- Intelligence
Probable Cause Standard? No.
Reduced Standard? Yes. Certification as relevant to investigation under a national security letter, as amended by § 505(a) of the USA PATRIOT Act.  18 U.S.C. § 2709(b) 
Additionally, production of "any tangible things (including books, records, papers, documents, and other items) ... sought for an authorized investigation," as amended by § 215 of the USA PATRIOT Act.
Notice Required at Time of Search? PROHIBITED.  18 U.S.C. § 2709(c)
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Email/Internet Logs

Description: Internet transactional records (e.g., to/from lines of email headers)
-- Criminal
Probable Cause Standard? No.  Warrant can be used, but voluntary disclosure in emergency, subpoena, or court order suffice.  18 U.S.C. §§ 2702, 2703(a)-(c)(1)
Reduced Standard? Yes, administrative or other subpoena seeking the described non-content information, generally a relevance or lower standard.  18 U.S.C. § 2703(c)(1), 2703(d)
Notice Required at Time of Search? No. 18 U.S.C. § 2703(c)(3)
Exception/Note: Non-content information required to be disclosed to government was expanded to include: name; address; local & long distance telephone connection records or records of session time and duration; length of service and types of services utilized; telephone or instrument number or other subscriber number or identity, including any temporarily assigned network address; and means & source of payment for service (including any credit card or bank account number).  18 U.S.C. § 2703(c)
Exception/Note: Any other record not covered requires 1) a warrant and no notice or 2) a court order and notice
-- Intelligence
Probable Cause Standard? No.
Reduced Standard? Yes. Certification as relevant to investigation under a national security letter, as amended by § 505(a) of the USA PATRIOT Act.  18 U.S.C. § 2709(b) 
Additionally, production of "any tangible things (including books, records, papers, documents, and other items) ... sought for an authorized investigation," as amended by § 215 of the USA PATRIOT Act.
Notice Required at Time of Search? PROHIBITED.
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Cable

Description: Cable television subscription information (does not apply to information services offered over a cable network).
-- Criminal
Probable Cause Standard? Court order required for cable viewing info, but ECPA controls for other data. 47 U.S.C. § 551.
Reduced Standard? ECPA rules apply. 47 U.S.C. § 551.
Notice Required at Time of Search? Yes, for viewing records. 47 U.S.C. § 551(h). For other data, see 18 U.S.C. § 2703.
-- Intelligence
Probable Cause Standard? No.
Reduced Standard? Yes. Production of "any tangible things (including books, records, papers, documents, and other items) ... sought for an authorized investigation," as amended by § 215 of the USA PATRIOT Act.  50 U.S.C. § 1861(a)
Notice Required at Time of Search? PROHIBITED. 50 U.S.C. § 1861(d)

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Bank

Description: Bank records in possession of bank or other financial institution
-- Criminal
Probable Cause Standard? No.  Warrant can be used, but subpoena or court order suffices.  12 U.S.C. §§ 3405-3406
Reduced Standard? Yes.  Subpoena with reason to believe that the records sought are relevant to a legitimate law enforcement inquiry.  12 U.S.C. §§ 3405, 3407, 3408
Notice Required at Time of Search? No.  Required but can be DELAYED. 12 U.S.C. §§ 3405(2), 3407(2), 3408(4), 3409
Exception/Note: A leading case in 3d party access is United States v. Miller, 425 U.S. 435 (1976) where it was held that Miller forfeited his expectation of privacy in his financial records because he revealed them to his bank, a third party.
Exception: Special situations exist for financial and consumer records of employees of executive branch of Government OR when there reasonable belief that a person is disclosing classified information. Only certification is necessary and disclosure is prohibited. 50 U.S.C. § 436
-- Intelligence
Probable Cause Standard? No.
Reduced Standard? Yes. Certification as relevant to investigation under a national security letter, as amended by § 505(b) of the USA PATRIOT Act.  12 U.S.C. § 3414(a)(5)(A)
Additionally, production of "any tangible things (including books, records, papers, documents, and other items) ... sought for an authorized investigation," as amended by § 215 of the USA PATRIOT Act.  50 U.S.C. § 1861(a)
Notice Required at Time of Search? No.  DELAYED notice.  12 U.S.C. § 3414(a)(5)(A); 50 U.S.C. § 1861(d)
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Credit History

Description: Consumer credit reports..
-- Criminal
Probable Cause Standard? No
Reduced Standard? Yes. Subpoena.  15 U.S.C. § 1681b(a)(1)
Notice Required at Time of Search? No.  15 U.S.C. § 1681g
Exception/Note: Treated as ordinary business records.
-- Intelligence
Probable Cause Standard? No.
Reduced Standard? Yes. Certification as relevant to investigation under a national security letter.  15 U.S.C. §§ 1681u, 1681v;
Yes. production of "any tangible things (including books, records, papers, documents, and other items) ... sought for an authorized investigation," as amended by § 215 of the USA PATRIOT Act.  50 U.S.C. § 1861(a)
Notice Required at Time of Search? PROHIBITED.  15 U.S.C. § 1681u(d); 50 U.S.C. § 1861(d)
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Education

Description: Educational records.
-- Criminal
Probable Cause Standard? No.
Reduced Standard? Yes. Subpoena suffices, on certification that there are specific and articulable facts .  20 U.S.C. §§ 1232g(b)(1)(J), 1232g(j)(2), 9007(c)
Notice Required at Time of Search? PROHIBITED.  20 U.S.C. § 1232g(b)(1)(J), 1232g(j); 34 C.F.R. 99.31
 
-- Intelligence
Probable Cause Standard? No.
Reduced Standard? Yes. Production of "any tangible things (including books, records, papers, documents, and other items) ... sought for an authorized investigation," as amended by § 215 of the USA PATRIOT Act.  50 U.S.C. § 1861(a);
Certification that there are specific and articulable facts that the information is relevant.  20 U.S.C. § 1232g(j)
Notice Required at Time of Search? PROHIBITED. 20 U.S.C. § 1232g(b)(1)(J) & 1232g(i), and 34 C.F.R. 99.31
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Other Records

Description: Store purchases, library, travel, and other records not protected by a specific privacy law.
-- Criminal
Probable Cause Standard? No
Yes: Video rental/sales records require probable cause.  18 U.S.C. § 2710(b)
Reduced Standard? Yes, voluntary disclosure
Notice Required at Time of Search? No
Yes: Video rental and sales records require notice.  18 U.S.C. § 2710(b)
Note/Exception: Some examples varied privacy protection for records:
Bank, 12 U.S.C. § 3413(g) (no notice for non-content information such as name and account number)
Medical: 45 C.F.R. 160.504, 164.152 (subpoena & notice)
Travel: Pub. L. 107-71 (mandatory disclosure of passenger manifest, including passport number, of foreign flights)
Remote Computing Service: 18 U.S.C. § 2703 (although there are protections for electronic communication services, they are not the same as for a remote computing service)
-- Intelligence
Probable Cause Standard? No.
Reduced Standard? Yes. Production of "any tangible things (including books, records, papers, documents, and other items) ... sought for an authorized investigation," as amended by § 215 of the USA PATRIOT Act.  50 U.S.C. § 1861(a)
Notice Required at Time of Search? PROHIBITED. 50 U.S.C. § 1861(d)
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International

Description: Voice, email, or data intercepted in transit or seized from storage medium overseas
-- Criminal
Probable Cause Standard? N/A.  Title III has no extraterritorial effect.  4th Amendment warrant clause has no extraterritorial effect but reasonableness clause does, at least for citizens.
Reduced Standard? N/A
Notice Required at Time of Search? No.
Exception/Note: United States v. Verdugo-Urquidez, 494 U.S. 259 (1990) (because respondent was a citizen of Mexico with no voluntary attachment to the United States, and because the residence searched was in Mexico, the 4th Amendment protections against unreasonable search and seizure had no application)
-- Intelligence
Probable Cause Standard? N/A. FISA, National Security Letters have no extraterritorial effect, so there is no protection.
Reduced Standard? N/A. FISA, National Security Letters have no extraterritorial effect, so there is no protection.
Notice Required at Time of Search? N/A. FISA, National Security Letters have no extraterritorial effect, so there is no protection.
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RELEVANT LAW

TITLE 12: BANKS AND BANKING

CHAPTER 35: RIGHT TO FINANCIAL PRIVACY

TITLE 15: COMMERCE AND TRADE

CHAPTER 41: CONSUMER CREDIT PROTECTION

TITLE 18: CRIMES AND CRIMINAL PROCEDURE

CHAPTER 119: WIRE AND ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATIONS INTERCEPTION AND INTERCEPTION OF ORAL COMMUNICATIONS CHAPTER 121: STORED WIRE AND ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATIONS AND TRANSACTIONAL RECORDS ACCESS CHAPTER 205: SEARCHES AND SEIZURES CHAPTER 206: PEN REGISTERS AND TRAP AND TRACE DEVICES

TITLE 20: EDUCATION

CHAPTER 31: GENERAL PROVISIONS CONCERNING EDUCATION CHAPTER 71: NATIONAL EDUCATION STATISTICS

TITLE 47: TELEGRAPHS, TELEPHONES, AND RADIOTELEGRAPHS

CHAPTER 5: WIRE OR RADIO COMMUNICATION
SUBCHAPTER V-A: CABLE COMMUNICATIONS

TITLE 50: WAR AND NATIONAL DEFENSE

CHAPTER 15: NATIONAL SECURITY
SUBCHAPTER VI: ACCESS TO CLASSIFIED INFORMATION CHAPTER 36: FOREIGN INTELLIGENCE SURVEILLANCE
SUBCHAPTER I: ELECTRONIC SURVEILLANCE SUBCHAPTER II: PHYSICAL SEARCHES SUBCHAPTER III: PEN REGISTERS AND TRAP AND TRACE DEVICES FOR FOREIGN INTELLIGENCE PURPOSES SUBCHAPTER IV: ACCESS TO CERTAIN BUSINESS RECORDS FOR FOREIGN INTELLIGENCE PURPOSES FEDERAL RULES OF CRIMINAL PROCEDURE

CODE OF FEDERAL REGULATIONS

CASE LAW

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